Research
The following are urgent issues for study:
The following are urgent issues for study:
- Domestication technology, which also leads to the efficient development of disease-free broodstock similar to those for Litopenaeus vannamei, is a major topic for on-going and future research in various institutions, including private sector organisations all over the world.
- Vaccination and effective treatment of shrimp viruses.
- Replacement of non-environmental friendly and costly fishmeal and Artemia in shrimp feeds.
- Efficient water treatment system for closed systems.
Development
Expansion in aquaculture production of Penaeus monodon has not been as great as was originally expected, due to a number of causes, including major problems with viral disease outbreaks, shortages of broodstock, market competition and trade barriers. In addition, many farmers that originally reared Penaeus monodon have replaced this species with Litopenaeus vannamei, for which culture and domestication technologies are much simpler. L. vannamei disease problems are less severe, particularly for culture in inland freshwater ponds. Due to its lower price, this new species can be increasingly sold in domestic markets, which ensures stable incomes for farmers instead of only relying on the unstable export price. Shrimp farming will be more sustainable if farmers can shift production to other species when the existing cultured species faces problems. Decreasing P. monodon production can also improve the status of its broodstock in the wild in the future because less will be caught and less disease from grow-out ponds will be introduced into the sea. Due to this alternative species, the growth of P. monodon production is predicted to slow in the immediate future. Later, it may increase again if the research needs outlined above are addressed, thus improving the sustainability of production and reducing operational costs.
Market
In general, Penaeus monodon is the most prominent farmed crustacean product in international trade and has driven a significant expansion in aquaculture in many developing countries in Asia. Market prices during its early development were quite good due to little competition and strong demand from the Japanese market. International markets appear to have become almost saturated since global production reached 600 000 tonnes/yr. The price for P. monodon has since fallen, particularly during the booming of the production of Litopenaeus vannamei in Asia from 2001-2004. However, its price is still higher than L. vannamei. In the future, the market for P. monodon is expected to be less bright than it was in 1990s, due mainly to the saturation of export markets and reduction in world economic growth, as well as the emergence of non-tariff barriers in shrimp trade (such as anti-dumping rules), chemical residues, food safety, certification and eco-labelling in some importing countries. There has been increasing change in consumer preference from shrimp to marine fish, due to the lower cholesterol and higher omega-3 in fish.
Recommendations
In order to continue the growth of shrimp farming smoothly in the long term, domestic consumption should be promoted to avoid the problematic export markets. However, the domestic price should be reduced in order to encourage local consumption, through the use of advanced, efficient and sustainable culture systems. This is similar to the advanced chicken or salmon farming systems that have reduced production costs and guaranteed survival. Shrimp farmers in Asia should select whether to stock either P. monodon or L. vannamei according to the foreseen market and operational problems such as competition, climate and disease outbreak season.
Market
In general, Penaeus monodon is the most prominent farmed crustacean product in international trade and has driven a significant expansion in aquaculture in many developing countries in Asia. Market prices during its early development were quite good due to little competition and strong demand from the Japanese market. International markets appear to have become almost saturated since global production reached 600 000 tonnes/yr. The price for P. monodon has since fallen, particularly during the booming of the production of Litopenaeus vannamei in Asia from 2001-2004. However, its price is still higher than L. vannamei. In the future, the market for P. monodon is expected to be less bright than it was in 1990s, due mainly to the saturation of export markets and reduction in world economic growth, as well as the emergence of non-tariff barriers in shrimp trade (such as anti-dumping rules), chemical residues, food safety, certification and eco-labelling in some importing countries. There has been increasing change in consumer preference from shrimp to marine fish, due to the lower cholesterol and higher omega-3 in fish.
Recommendations
In order to continue the growth of shrimp farming smoothly in the long term, domestic consumption should be promoted to avoid the problematic export markets. However, the domestic price should be reduced in order to encourage local consumption, through the use of advanced, efficient and sustainable culture systems. This is similar to the advanced chicken or salmon farming systems that have reduced production costs and guaranteed survival. Shrimp farmers in Asia should select whether to stock either P. monodon or L. vannamei according to the foreseen market and operational problems such as competition, climate and disease outbreak season.
Main issues
In recent years, the development of shrimp farming has generated many public debates over environmental impact, such as the:
- Use of mangrove ecosystems for pond construction.
- Salinisation of groundwater and agricultural land.
- Pollution of coastal waters due to pond effluents.
- Biodiversity issues arising from collection of wild seed and broodstock.
- Social conflicts with other users of resources.
- Farm discharges, causing self-pollution in shrimp growing areas as well as viral disease outbreaks.
In fact, governments and the shrimp industry in Asia have partially solved and continue to improve the above negative impacts. The newly developed intensive ponds do not require any tidal mangrove areas and there have been many programmes for mangrove replanting in abandoned shrimp farming areas. Culture technology in inland areas has been improved using a very minimal amount of seawater (only 2-3‰) and closed systems to prevent salinisation of freshwater resources. In conjunction with disease outbreaks, closed systems and better management practices are increasingly being applied to prevent the pollution of coastal waters by pond effluents.
Overfishing of wild seeds and broodstock has been relaxed due to disease prevention measure and the shift to alternative species that can be domesticated. Shrimp farming in Asia does not create as many social conflicts with local communities as in Latin America, where large-scale farms are commonplace, because it is mostly operated by small-scale farmers that originate from coastal communities and own less than 5 ha of land. The shrimp industry also employs hundreds of thousands of rural people for farm operations and supply industries, as well as for shrimp processing and distribution. Enriched nutrients in shrimp farm effluent have proved to enhance the growth of aquatic animals and mangroves.
Overfishing of wild seeds and broodstock has been relaxed due to disease prevention measure and the shift to alternative species that can be domesticated. Shrimp farming in Asia does not create as many social conflicts with local communities as in Latin America, where large-scale farms are commonplace, because it is mostly operated by small-scale farmers that originate from coastal communities and own less than 5 ha of land. The shrimp industry also employs hundreds of thousands of rural people for farm operations and supply industries, as well as for shrimp processing and distribution. Enriched nutrients in shrimp farm effluent have proved to enhance the growth of aquatic animals and mangroves.
Responsible aquaculture practices
Due to rapid expansion and increasing awareness of negative impacts of shrimp farming practices on the environment and its own production, many shrimp producing countries in Asia, particularly Thailand, have complied with the concept of responsible aquaculture in Article 9 of the FAO Code of Conduct. The Thai Government, with the agreement of stakeholders, used this concept, together with CODEX, ISO 14001/(EMS), to develop a shrimp farm certification programme under the Code of Conduct (COC) and Good Aquaculture Practice (GAP) for sustainable shrimp aquaculture. Conceptual guidelines, good practice and standards, together with training and auditing systems, have been established. The programme is running in all shrimp farming provinces and voluntary membership is increasing. This programme will be one of the models for further development of COC in other shrimp producing countries. However, certification and eco-labelling systems are a heavy task, because traceability of qualifying products through small-scale farms and hatcheries, which are the major producers in the region, seems to difficult
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